1.3 Examples of Fields that Use Digital Image Processing
Today, there is almost no area of technical endeavor that is not impacted in some way by digital image processing. We can cover only a few of these applications in the context and space of the current discussion. However, limited as it is, the material presented in this section will leave no doubt in your mind regarding the breadth and importance of digital image processing. We show in this section numerous areas of application, each of which routinely utilizes the digital image processing techniques developed in the following chapters. Many of the images shown in this section are used later in one or more of the examples given in the book. All images shown are digital.
The areas of application of digital image processing are so varied that some form of organization is desirable in attempting to capture the breadth of this field. One of the simplest ways to develop a basic understanding of the extent of image processing applications is to categorize images according to their source (e.g., visual, X-ray, and so on). The principal energy source for images in use today is the electromagnetic energy spectrum. Other important sources of energy include acoustic, ultrasonic, and electronic (in the form of electron beams used in electron microscopy). Synthetic images, used for modeling and visualization, are generated by computer. In this section we discuss briefly how images are generated in these various categories and the areas in which they are applied. Methods for converting images into digital form are discussed in the next chapter.
Images based on radiation from the EM spectrum are the most familiar, especially images in the X-ray and visual bands of the spectrum. Electromagnetic waves can be conceptualized as propagating sinusoidal waves of varying wavelengths, or they can be thought of as a stream of massless particles, each traveling in a wavelike pattern and moving at the speed of light. Each massless particle contains a certain amount (or bundle) of energy. Each bundle of energy is called a photon. If spectral bands are grouped according to energy per photon, we obtain the spectrum shown in Fig. 1.5, ranging from gamma rays (highest energy) at one end to radio waves (lowest energy) at the other.
Gamma 射线 / X 射线 / 紫外线 / 可见光 / 红外线 / 微波 / 无线电波
FIGURE 1.5 The electromagnetic spectrum arranged according to energy per photon.
图1.5 根据每个光子的能量排列的电磁波谱。
电子伏特(electron volt),符号为eV,是能量的单位。代表一个电子(所带电量为1.6×10-19C的负电荷)经过1伏特的电位差加速后所获得的动能。
电子伏特与能量单位焦耳(J)的换算关系是1 eV = 1.602176565×10^-19 J
The bands are shown shaded to convey the fact that bands of the EM spectrum are not distinct but rather transition smoothly from one to the other.
这些波段由一段阴影表示,以表达电磁波谱的波段不是截然不同的,而是从一个平滑过渡到另一个的事实。
1.3.1 Gamma-Ray Imaging
Major uses of imaging based on gamma rays include nuclear medicine and astronomical observations. In nuclear medicine, the approach is to inject a patient with a radioactive isotope that emits gamma rays as it decays. Images are produced from the emissions collected by gamma ray detectors. Figure 1.6(a) shows an image of a complete bone scan obtained by using gamma-ray imaging. Images of this sort are used to locate sites of bone pathology, such as infections or tumors. Figure 1.6(b) shows another major modality of nuclear imaging called positron emission tomography(PET). The principle is the same as with X-ray tomography, mentioned briefly in Section 1.2. However, instead of using an external source of X-ray energy, the patient is given a radioactive isotope that emits positrons as it decays. When a positron meets an electron,both are annihilated and two gamma rays are given off. These are detected and a tomographic image is created using the basic principles of tomography. The image shown in Fig.1.6(b) is one sample of a sequence that constitutes a 3-D rendition of the patient. This image shows a tumor in the brain and one in the lung, easily visible as small white masses.
A star in the constellation of Cygnus exploded about 15,000 years ago, generating a superheated stationary gas cloud (known as the Cygnus Loop) that glows in a spectacular array of colors. Figure 1.6(c) shows an image of the Cygnus Loop in the gamma-ray band. Unlike the two examples in Figs. 1.6(a) and (b), this image was obtained using the natural radiation of the object being imaged.Finally, Fig. 1.6(d) shows an image of gamma radiation from a valve in a nuclear reactor. An area of strong radiation is seen in the lower left side of the image.
FIGURE 1.6 Examples of gamma-ray imaging.
(c)Cygnus Loop. (d)Gamma radiation(bright spot) from a reactor valve.
图1.6 伽马射线成像的例子。
(c)天鹅座星云。 (d)来自反应堆阀门的伽马辐射(亮点)。
Images courtesy of
(a)G.E. Medical Systems,
(b)Dr.Michael E.Casey, CTI PET Systems,
(c)NASA,
(d)Professors Zhong He and David K.Wehe, University of Michigan.
图片来源说明。
1.3.2 X-Ray Imaging
X-rays are among the oldest sources of EM radiation used for imaging. The best known use of X-rays is medical diagnostics, but they also are used extensively in industry and other areas, like astronomy. X-rays for medical and industrial imaging are generated using an X-ray tube, which is a vacuum tube with a cathode and anode. The cathode is heated, causing free electrons to be released. These electrons flow at high speed to the positively charged anode. When the electrons strike a nucleus, energy is released in the form of X-ray radiation. The energy (penetrating power) of X-rays is controlled by a voltage applied across the anode, and by a current applied to the filament in the cathode. Figure 1.7(a) shows a familiar chest X-ray generated simply by placing the patient between an X-ray source and a film sensitive to X-ray energy. The intensity of the X-rays is modified by absorption as they pass through the patient, and the resulting energy falling on the film develops it, much in the same way that light develops photographic film. In digital radiography,digital images are obtained by one of two methods: (1) by digitizing X-ray films; or (2) by having the X-rays that pass through the patient fall directly onto devices (such as a phosphor screen) that convert X-rays to light. The light signal in turn is captured by a light-sensitive digitizing system. We discuss digitization in more detail in Chapters 2 and 4.
Angiography is another major application in an area called contrast-enhancement radiography. This procedure is used to obtain images (called angiograms) of blood vessels. A catheter (a small, flexible, hollow tube) is inserted, for example, into an artery or vein in the groin. The catheter is threaded into the blood vessel and guided to the area to be studied. When the catheter reaches the site under investigation, an X-ray contrast medium is injected through the tube. This enhances contrast of the blood vessels and enables the radiologist to see any irregularities or blockages. Figure 1.7(b) shows an example of an aortic angiogram. The catheter can be seen being inserted into the large blood vessel on the lower left of the picture.Note the high contrast of the large vessel as the contrast medium flows up in the direction of the kidneys, which are also visible in the image. As discussed in Chapter 2, angiography is a major area of digital image processing, where image subtraction is used to enhance further the blood vessels being studied.
Images courtesy of (a) and (c) Dr.David R. Pickens,Dept. of Radiology & Radiological Sciences,Vanderbilt University Medical Center;
(b) Dr. Thomas R. Gest, Division of Anatomical Sciences,University of Michigan Medical School;
(d) Mr. Joseph E. Pascente, Lixi, Inc.;
and (e) NASA.
图像来源说明。
Another important use of X-rays in medical imaging is computerized axial tomography (CAT). Due to their resolution and 3-D capabilities,CAT scans revolutionized medicine from the moment they first became available in the early 1970s. As noted in Section 1.2, each CAT image is a “slice”taken perpendicularly through the patient. Numerous slices are generated as the patient is moved in a longitudinal direction.The ensemble of such images constitutes a 3-D rendition of the inside of the body, with the longitudinal resolution being proportional to the number of slice images taken. Figure 1.7(c) shows a typical head CAT slice image.
Techniques similar to the ones just discussed, but generally involving higher-energy X-rays, are applicable in industrial processes. Figure 1.7(d) shows an X-ray image of an electronic circuit board. Such images, representative of literally hundreds of industrial applications of X-rays, are used to examine circuit boards for flaws in manufacturing, such as missing components or broken traces. Industrial CAT scans are useful when the parts can be penetrated by X-rays, such as in plastic assemblies, and even large bodies, like solid-propellant rocket motors. Figure 1.7(e) shows an example of X-ray imaging in astronomy. This image is the Cygnus Loop of Fig. 1.6(c), but imaged this time in the X-ray band.